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Labor camps -

Gulag, short for "Glavnoye Upravleniye Lagerey" or Main Camp Administration, is the acronym used since 1930. It refers to the government agency responsible for the Soviet forced labor camps established by Vladimir Lenin's order.

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Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) -

Lenin, alongside Leon Trotsky, initially proposed the idea of establishing concentration camps in Siberia for class enemies around 1918.

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Exile and forced labor -

The concept, however, was not original. The practice of sending individuals to Siberia as punishment had been implemented since the 17th century and applied to various offenses. Political dissidents and revolutionaries frequently faced this form of exile. Sakhalin, a large island located near Siberia's Pacific coast, gained infamy as a notorious prison for those found guilty of major crimes. This image from 1890 displays imprisoned individuals confined in cages on a steamer while being transported to the island.

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Sakhalin -

Convicts sent to Sakhalin Island were subjected to grueling forced labor, known as katorga. A guard is shown attaching heavy chains to a new prisoner upon their arrival at a government facility on Sakhalin Island.

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Sonya Golden Hand -

Men and women were sent to Sakhalin. This rare photo displays Sonya Golden Hand, a female swindler, secured with leg irons upon her arrival on the island. She had been convicted of theft and was banished to the colony for an unspecified time. In 1890, she crossed paths with Anton Chekhov, a Russian playwright who was investigating prison reform and happened to be visiting Sakhalin. Chekhov later recounted this encounter in his book 'Sakhalin Island.'

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Solovki -

Siberia had acquired a reputation for being a place of punishment. However, in 1920, the first prototype camp of the future Gulag system, named Solovki, was established on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea area. Ironically, it was located within a monastery building.

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Camp system -

The initial detainees who were sent to this distant establishment were individuals who opposed the Bolsheviks politically. Shortly after, the Solovetsky Islands became the principal hub for the prison system in northern Russia.

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"Method of reeducation" -

In 1923, there were approximately 3,000 prisoners in Solovki. However, by 1930, this number had increased dramatically to nearly 50,000. The Solovki prison camp utilized forced labor as a means of "reeducation." A cruel system known as the you-eat-as-you-work method was implemented, connecting inmates' food rations to their productivity. This plan, known as the nourishment scale, resulted in the death of weaker prisoners within a matter of weeks. The image shown depicts the prison's concert party, which was likely organized for propaganda reasons.

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Gulag "archipelagos" -

Large "clusters" of camps developed throughout Siberia as a result of ambitious economic initiatives. These camps offered a practical labor force and were often established near major projects, such as the White Sea–Baltic Canal.

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Joseph Stalin (1878–1953) -

In 1929, Stalin introduced a program for rapid industrialization and five-year plans. The next year, the Gulag was officially established, forming a single network of camps to replace the current two-tier system for those deemed enemies of the state or criminals.

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White Sea–Baltic Canal -

In 1931, the ambitious project commenced. A workforce of 126,000 prisoners was brought together to construct the world's first waterway solely managed by prisoners.

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Overcrowding and disease -

The choice to employ compulsory labor for the entire canal construction was primarily driven by economic factors. Prisoners received no wages, and their lodgings were rudimentary. Overcrowding was prevalent, and diseases were rampant.

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The sick and the dying -

The hospital facilities were inadequate and the overall care provided was unsatisfactory. At the same time, the number of prisoners kept increasing. By mid-1931, 1,438 prisoners had passed away. This was around 2% of the average number of prisoners held there. The death rate increased towards the end of the year due to rising losses in the industrial sector and a decline in food supply.

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A dreadful truth -

Prison labor camps were often concealed from public view, but the White Sea Canal stood as a platform for convicts to demonstrate their redemption through labor. However, beneath this facade, a horrifying reality remained hidden.

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High death rate -

According to official records and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's writings, the death toll during the canal's construction in 1933 was somewhere between 12,000 and 240,000 laborers. Pictured is a prisoner's grave at the onsite camp. 

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Canal inauguration -

Stalin and Kremlin members attended the canal's official opening on August 2, 1933.

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All for nothing -

The Soviet dictator's urgency meant that the workers and engineers were never granted adequate resources, funding, or tools to construct a canal that could efficiently accommodate modern cargo and provide a safe passage. Consequently, the canal failed to make any notable impact on Soviet trade or industry.

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Vorkutlag -

During the mid to late 1930s, the Soviet Union was engulfed in the Great Terror, a period marked by Stalin's campaign of political repression called the Great Purge. This merciless crackdown resulted in the persecution of numerous individuals, including officials from the Communist Party, Red Army personnel, civil servants, and so-called "kulaks" (relatively wealthy peasants). Many of these unfortunate individuals were sent to Vorkutlag, which is notorious for being one of the harshest Soviet Gulags.

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Hidden away in the Arctic Circle -

Vorkutlag, situated in Vorkuta within the Komi Republic, was among the Gulag system's largest camps, found just north of the Arctic Circle.

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"Enemies of the state" -

Vorkutlag was founded in 1932 when coal mining operations commenced. Initially, it accommodated dissidents, political prisoners, and individuals labeled as "enemies of the state," as well as regular criminals. It also functioned as a prisoner-of-war camp in the Second World War.

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Purged -

Women prisoners find a moment to rest in their shack in the Vorkutlag. Due to Stalin's purges, numerous camps struggled to handle the large influx of inmates.

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More prisoners -

The Vorkuta Gulag system consisted of around 132 sub-camps, with Vorkutlag reaching its highest occupancy in 1951, housing 71,000 prisoners.

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The fate of women prisoners -

Women experienced significant hardship in the Gulag. They were subjected to physical abuse and assault by male camp staff, guards, and fellow male inmates. To ensure safety and companionship, some women formed relationships with "camp husbands."

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Goods for mass consumption -

Male and female prisoners were also involved in labor at a tailor's workshop. Numerous camps offered opportunities for inmates to manufacture goods for the broader market, including clothing and accessories like shoes.

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Working a trade -

Imprisoned carpenters and potters utilized their skills in the production of ceramics and furniture as well.

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Very cold temperatures -

Countless Gulag prisoners perished from exposure. Fatigued, frail, and poorly dressed, they lacked the means to endure the bitter cold of sub-zero temperatures. The image portrays a labor brigade in the taiga of Eastern Siberia, close to Verkhoyansk. This location experienced a bone-chilling low of −68°C (−90°F).

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Megalomaniacal projects -

In the late 1940s, Stalin approved additional ambitious projects, including the construction of the Salekhard-Igarka railway, also known as the "Dead Road." However, these plans, along with a tunnel and railway to Sakhalin Island, were later halted following Stalin's death in 1953.

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Death of Stalin -

Joseph Stalin passed away on March 5, 1953. This event led to an amnesty for individuals convicted of minor crimes, although political prisoners were disregarded. This information spread throughout the entire Gulag Archipelago.

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Uprising -

The Vorkutlag Uprising of 1953 occurred right after Stalin's passing and began as a nonviolent protest by prisoners who aimed to bring attention to the poor conditions in the camp. As time went on, the uprising turned violent and was mercilessly suppressed. Nevertheless, this event had a significant impact. In the same year, the Norillag Gulag witnessed a similar strike, which came to be known as the Norilsk Uprising. The image shows S. Golovko, a prisoner of Norilsk Gulag and an active participant in the uprising.

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"Khrushchev Thaw" -

This 1938 propaganda poster states: "Hot work will melt away your prison term!" However, in 1954, the newly appointed Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, initiated a reassessment of nearly four million political crime cases, referred to as the "Khrushchev Thaw." The Gulag system was ultimately eliminated in 1957. Nonetheless, the suppression of dissidents persisted, resulting in the imprisonment of many political adversaries who endured appalling conditions while serving their sentences.

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Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008) -

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, a prominent dissident during the Soviet era, gained widespread recognition for his criticism of the Soviet Union and Communism. As a consequence, he endured an arduous journey, spending eight years confined in a labor camp and subsequently enduring internal exile, all due to a critique of Joseph Stalin in a private letter. He was freed from exile in 1956. Notably, Solzhenitsyn's renowned publication, 'The Gulag Archipelago,' unveiled in 1973, tells of his personal experience as a Gulag prisoner, emerging as one of the foremost authoritative records of life within the Gulag system. 

Sources: (Gulag Online) (Hoover Press) (Gulag History) (Gulag Map) (Britannica) (Seventeen Moments in Soviet History)

See also: The most influential authors of the 20th century

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